Chinese Premier Li Qiang said Sunday that BRICS countries should strive to become the vanguard in advancing the reform of global governance.
Li made the remarks when addressing the plenary session of "Peace and Security and Reform of Global Governance" of the 17th BRICS Summit, calling on the bloc to safeguard world peace and tranquility, and promote the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Leaders of BRICS countries attended the meeting, which was presided by Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva.
Li said at present, changes unseen in a century are unfolding at an accelerated pace, international rules and order are being severely challenged, and the authority and efficacy of multilateral institutions continue to wane.
The vision of global governance put forward by Chinese President Xi Jinping, characterized by extensive consultation, joint contribution and shared benefits, has been further demonstrating its contemporary value and practical significance, Li said.
In face of growing conflicts and differences, it is needed to enhance extensive consultation based on equality and mutual respect; In face of deeply intertwined common interests, it is needed to pursue joint contribution through solidarity; In face of mutually beneficial development opportunities, it is needed to hold an open mind to seek mutual success and shared benefits, said Li.
As the leading force of the Global South, BRICS countries should uphold independence and self-reliance, demonstrate a sense of responsibility, and play a greater role in building consensus and synergies, Li noted.
The Chinese premier called on the group to hold fast to morality and justice, and seek fundamental solutions based on the merits of each issue.
BRICS countries should also focus on development and bolster the drivers of economic growth, said Li, adding that they should actively spearhead development cooperation and tap into the growth potential of emerging sectors.
Noting that China will establish a China-BRICS research center on new quality productive forces this year, Li also announced a scholarship established for BRICS countries to facilitate talent cultivation in sectors including industry and telecommunication.
It is essential for BRICS countries to foster inclusiveness and advance exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations, Li said, calling on the countries to act as advocates for the harmonious coexistence of civilizations, striving to ensure diverse civilizations flourish together through mutual reinforcement.
China stands ready to join hands with other BRICS countries to promote global governance in a more just, equitable, efficient and orderly direction, working collectively to build a better world, he said.
The leaders of countries participating in the meeting noted that the BRICS cooperation mechanism has continued to grow stronger and more representative, with its international influence rising steadily.
It has provided an important platform for Global South countries to defend their right to development, uphold international fairness and justice, and participate in the reform of the global governance system, they said.
In an increasingly turbulent world where unilateralism and protectionism are on the rise, they said, BRICS countries should enhance solidarity and coordination, defend the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, uphold and practice multilateralism, and make greater contribution to promoting common development, improving global governance, and fostering lasting peace and prosperity in the world.
The meeting adopted the Rio de Janeiro Declaration of the 17th BRICS Summit.
Chinese Premier Li Qiang on Monday called for commitment to building an open world economy, and urged the importance of opposing unilateralism and protectionism.
In his remarks addressing the plenary sessions of the 17th BRICS Summit, Li also stressed the need to maintain the stability and smoothness of industrial and supply chains.
Facing an intertwined international situation, China and Europe should enhance communication, understanding, and mutual trust to become "anchors of stability" for the world and be reliable and strong partners that achieve mutual success, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi said during a meeting with Belgium's Prime Minister Bart de Wever in Brussels on Monday.
Wang, also a member of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, is visiting Europe from June 30 to July 6, at the invitation of High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy of the EU Kaja Kallas, Federal Foreign Minister of Germany Johann Wadephul, and Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs of France Jean-Noël Barrot.
Wang said that Belgium is a founding member of the European Union and the location of its headquarters, playing a unique role in the process of European integration and in relations between China and Europe. China appreciates the new Belgian government's rational and pragmatic policy toward China and is willing to promote the traditional friendship with Belgium and to push the all-round partnership of friendship and cooperation between the two countries to continue moving forward steadily.
Insisting on high-quality development and a high level of opening up, China welcomes more Belgian enterprises to develop in the country and hopes that Belgium will also provide a fair, safe, and predictable business environment for Chinese companies investing in Belgium, Wang noted.
Wang noted that 2025 marks the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Europe, which is of significant importance for carrying forward the past and ushering in the future. "The half-century of exchanges between China and Europe fully proves that both sides can fully respect each other and achieve win-win cooperation," Wang said.
Wang emphasized that facing today's intertwined international situation, China and Europe, as two major global forces, markets, and civilizations, should strengthen communication, enhancing understanding, and consolidating mutual trust to jointly uphold multilateralism and the free trade system. China and Europe should be "anchors of stability" for the world and be reliable and strong partners that achieve mutual success.
De Wever said that Belgium and China have a long history of exchanges with active local friendly exchanges, which played a gateway role in Europe-China cooperation. He said that having visited China several times, he has been deeply impressed by China's development achievements. Although Europe and China have different perspectives, in the face of the current complex geopolitical situation, both sides should strengthen exchanges and enhance mutual trust, De Wever said.
De Wever said that Belgium firmly believes in multilateralism, supports Europe in strengthening its autonomy, and looks forward to positive outcomes from the meeting of European and Chinese leaders. He emphasized that the Belgian government firmly adheres to the one China policy and will not change this stance.
The two sides also exchanged views concerning the situation in Ukraine.
Premier of the State Council Li Qiang will attend the 17th BRICS Summit upon invitation in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from July 5 to 8, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Mao Ning announced at a regular press conference on Wednesday.
When asked about China's expectations for the BRICS Summit, Mao said the BRICS cooperation mechanism offers the most important platform for the solidarity and cooperation among emerging markets and developing countries in the world. It's an important force for realizing an equal and orderly multipolar world and a universally beneficial and inclusive economic globalization.
Mao noted that this will be the first summit after the new member Indonesia, and 10 partner countries joined BRICS. Multiple emerging markets, developing countries, and international and regional organizations are invited to the summit.
China looks forward to working with all parties to consolidate the BRICS strategic partnership, make due contributions to safeguarding multilateralism, promoting common development and improving global governance, and advance the high-quality development of greater BRICS cooperation, Mao added.
Initially comprised of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, the recently expanded BRICS now also includes Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, according to the official BRICS 2025 website. The grouping has evolved into a platform for South-South cooperation and political coordination.
Based on the Johannesburg Declaration, the 2024 Kazan Summit approved the creation of a BRICS partner country category, which now includes Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, and most recently, Vietnam.
Experts noted that the expanded format reflects BRICS' rising capacity to represent the Global South. This year's meeting is expected to offer broader representation and a stronger voice for developing nations amid challenges to multilateralism and international cooperation, they added.
"This summit marks the first full gathering of the '11 members+10 partners' BRICS family. Within this new system, developing countries will no longer be the silent majority but a vital force in global governance," Wang Youming, Director of the Institute of Developing Countries at the China Institute of International Studies, told the Global Times on Wednesday.
Growing voice
The inclusion of Indonesia as a full member and Vietnam as a partner country further strengthens BRICS' representativeness and influence. The enlarged grouping spans Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East, representing nearly half of the global population and about 30 percent of global GDP, contributing over 50 percent of global economic growth, according to an article published on People's Daily Wednesday.
''Joining BRICS cooperation is good for Vietnam's development and the common interest of BRICS countries and the Global South. Having a new partner country in the BRICS family symbolizes the BRICS' growing representativeness, appeal and impact,'' Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Guo Jiakun said on June 16.
China stands ready to work with other BRICS members and partner countries for a closer and more all-round, result-oriented and inclusive partnership, advance high-quality greater BRICS cooperation, and contribute more to defending multilateralism and global fairness and justice and advocating common development, Guo added.
Ali El-Hefny, Vice President of the Egypt-China Friendship Association and former Egyptian Deputy Foreign Minister, noted BRICS' increasing influence and its critical role in promoting South-South cooperation and common development, the People's Daily reported.
Against a backdrop of frequent geopolitical conflicts and disruptions to the international trade order, BRICS' role in articulating the voice of developing nations has never been more critical, Wang said.
"From the perspectives of economic scale, population, and political representation, BRICS surpasses regional groupings like the G7. It is therefore vital for BRICS to speak with one voice in confronting trade protectionism, geopolitical tensions, and climate change," Wang added.
On June 24, BRICS issued a Joint Statement on the Escalation of the Security Situation in the Middle East Following the Military Strikes on the Territory of the Islamic Republic of Iran, calling on all parties to use existing channels of dialogue and diplomacy, with a view to de-escalate the situation and resolving their differences through peaceful means, which according to experts, demonstrates BRICS' unified voice on global peace and governance.
Emerging challenges
The 2025 summit is also expected to address key global issues, including the governance of artificial intelligence (AI). According to the BRICS official website, the bloc seeks to improve the legitimacy, equity in participation, and efficiency of global institutions such as the UN, IMF, World Bank, and WTO, while bolstering sustainable social and economic development and promote social inclusion, said the BRICS website.
Brazil, as the current BRICS Chair, has outlined two strategic priorities: Global South Cooperation and BRICS Partnerships for Social, Economic, and Environmental Development. According to the International Institute for Sustainable Development, Brazil's agenda includes six key areas: global health, trade and finance, climate change, AI governance, peace and security, and institutional development.
Chen Fengying, a research fellow at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, told the Global Times on Wednesday that green development, green finance, and AI will be key areas of discussion during the summit.
"On the future of emerging industries, the Global South will establish its own rules and voice. BRICS will play a pivotal role, with China, as a leading player in these sectors, expected to take the lead," Chen said.
In response to a media enquiry regarding whether China agrees to become a signatory to the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (SEANWFZ) along with Russia, and if so, why China has made this decision now, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Mao Ning said on Thursday that as ASEAN's comprehensive strategic partner and friendly neighbor, China has always firmly supported the establishment of a Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone.
China and Russia have agreed to become signatories to the SEANWFZ, while the US is currently reviewing the treaty before signing, said Malaysian Foreign Minister Mohamad Hasan, as reported by Malaysian National News Agency Bernama.
Mohamad said the involvement of superpowers in the treaty would help preserve Southeast Asia as a region of peace, free of nuclear weapons, per Bernama.
"We have repeatedly made it clear that we are willing to be the first to sign the treaty. China is willing to continue communicating with ASEAN members regarding the signing of the protocol," Mao said.
In response to some Australian media outlets recently hyping China-related remarks made by Fiji's Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka while he was answering reporters' questions at the National Press Club of Australia, the Chinese Embassy in Fiji said in a statement on Thursday that the claims about "China setting up a military base in the Pacific" are false narratives. They are baseless and driven by ulterior motives.
Some media outlet, including Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), has highlighted Fiji's Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka's remarks on "not welcome" any Chinese military bases in the region in the headline. While in the news, ABC also noted that Rabuka told the Press Club that he didn't believe China was actively looking for a military base in Pacific.
The Embassy noticed that Prime Minister Rabuka said he did not believe that China needs a base in the Pacific. The claims about "China setting up a military base in the Pacific" are false narratives. They are baseless and driven by ulterior motives, said the spokesperson.
China's presence in the Pacific is focused on building roads and bridges to improve people's livelihoods, not on stationing troops or setting up military bases. Never has China stirred up any dispute in the Pacific Region, violated any inch of land from Pacific Island Countries, or signed any agreement that forced Pacific Island Countries to sacrifice their sovereignty, according to the spokesperson.
China remains firmly committed to the international nuclear non-proliferation regime with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as the cornerstone and to the Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty. We firmly support Pacific Island Countries in playing a bigger role in regional and international affairs, and will maintain communication with Pacific Island Countries on major international and regional hotspot issues to make positive contributions to the peace and stability of the Pacific region, said the Embassy spokesperson.
China and Fiji are comprehensive strategic partners, and security cooperation is part of our bilateral relations. China applauds Prime Minister Rabuka's vision for the Pacific as an "Ocean of Peace", and is committed to work with Fiji in contributing to peace and security in the region and beyond, said the Embassy spokesperson.
The spokesperson of the Embassy emphasizes that the Pacific Ocean is large enough to accommodate win-win cooperation among all countries. China sincerely calls on relevant parties to avoid viewing China-Fiji and China-Pacific Island Countries relations through the narrow lens of geopolitical games, hyping up the so-called threats of geopolitical competition in the region, forcing Pacific Island Countries to "take sides", and imposing their own interests on these countries. Instead, we urge them to do more concrete things that contribute to the development of Pacific Island Countries and the well-being of the people.
Over the past 20 years, the pace of equal and mutually beneficial bilateral cooperation between China and Pacific island countries has accelerated, which has caused unease and dissatisfaction among Western countries. They are attempting to use such propaganda tactic to drive a wedge between Pacific island nations and China — a common tactic of diplomatic blackmail they employ, Yu Lei, a professor from the Department of International Politics and Economics at Shandong University, told the Global Times.
China has always developed its relations with island countries based on the principles of peaceful coexistence and equality and mutual benefit, and has no intention of escalating military tensions in the region, said Yu.
In the statement, the spokesperson also said that the Embassy noticed Prime Minister Rabuka commented that China stood with Fiji when Australia turned away. He remarked that Fiji and China respect each other's sovereignty and we have not had any intrusion into our sovereign space.
China has no interest in geopolitical competition, or seeking the so-called "sphere of influence." There is no political strings attached to China's assistance, no imposing one's will onto others, and no empty promises. China advocates for all countries to uphold Pacific Island Countries' autonomy in making decisions, putting development first, and staying open and inclusive when developing relations with Pacific Island Countries, said the spokesperson.
China always believes that the Pacific is the homeland of the people of Pacific Island Countries, not the backyard of big powers outside the region. The Pacific is a stage for cooperation, not a battlefield for vicious competition. It makes no sense to view China's sincere help to Pacific Island Countries from the narrow perspective of geo-competition, said the spokesperson.
Forcing Pacific Island Countries to "choose sides" can never address the urgent demands for development of the people from the Pacific Island Countries, nor the common threat of climate change to mankind, said the spokesperson.
At nearly 30 hours and 20,000 kilometers away from Beijing, Buenos Aires in Argentina is one of the furthest destinations in the world from the Chinese capital. In a popular 2024 stand-up comedy show, Yan Hexiang, a Chinese actor and crosstalk performer, humorously pointed out that the antipodal point to Beijing is located in the Pampas grasslands of Argentina. However, the distance between Argentina and China doesn't seem so far. Just about 38 kilometers from Ministro Pistarini International Airport in Buenos Aires, is a largely commercial section about five blocks long in the district of Belgrano, where a towering Chinese-style archway greets you, inscribed with the words "China Town."
The Global Times has visited many "Chinatowns" around the world, including those in Washington, London, and Nagasaki. However, Buenos Aires' "Chinatown" is quite different from the rest. This is immediately apparent upon entry: On a Sunday evening, the streets bustle with activity, restaurants have long wait times, and shops attend to numerous customers. Upon closer inspection, the Global Times noticed that non-Chinese diners and shoppers actually outnumber Chinese ones.
In Chinese, the word "foreigner" is used to refer to anyone who is not Chinese, therefore within the context of Buenos Aires, it is used to refer to non-Chinese locals. In many other "Chinatowns" in the world, Chinese nationals are surrounded by their own, and while the occasional less-than-authentic Chinese cuisine might remind them that "this is not China," the presence of Chinese nationals gives a sense of belonging. In contrast, in Buenos Aires' "Chinatown," surrounded by countless local faces, the "Chinese nationals" seem more like visitors passing through.
Famous Chinese hotpot restaurant brands like Little Sheep Mongolian Hot Pot, Shoo Loong Kan Hot Pot, and Haidilao Hot Pot, commonly found in American "Chinatowns," are conspicuously absent. However, Chinese culture, cuisine, and products are everywhere, and even bubble tea has become a favorite among the youth in the "Chinatown." A capybara in a shop window observes the comings and goings, much like its counterpart in the trendy toy area of Chaoyang district's Joy City mall in Beijing, 20,000 kilometers away. In addition to Chinese elements, graffiti in the style of Japanese animator, filmmaker, and manga artist Hayao Miyazaki features the Chinese characters for "Visited Here," and posters of South Korean idols appear in shop windows, indicating that this "Chinatown" not only spreads Chinese culture but also incorporates East Asian elements. A few steps further, a street magician interacts with the audience, with a prominent image of "Guanyin" on the wall behind him, as if everything before us is being witnessed by the bodhisattva. Why are there so many "foreigners" in Buenos Aires' "Chinatown"? Locals provided various answers. Most people's first response was that "Chinatown" is an important social media hotspot in Buenos Aires. If you plan a day trip to the city, this is a must-visit location. "You visited on the last day of a long weekend, so of course, there were many people shopping and dining; people love going to Chinatown," a local Chinese national told the Global Times.
Another local explained that unlike many other "Chinatowns," Buenos Aires' "Chinatown" has a significant number of Chinese residents, but it is not the main gathering place for the local Chinese community. With its trendy atmosphere, it naturally attracts a lot of young people, making the "foreigners" seem particularly popular.
What is it that attracts so many "foreigners" to this "Chinatown"? "Chinese cuisine" topped the list of mentions, with Chinese products and culture also frequently cited among those interviewed by the Global Times. "Yufu" is a relatively authentic Cantonese restaurant in Buenos Aires' "Chinatown," where Chinese food is on the pricier side compared to local dining options. Yet even at 2:10 pm on Sunday, the restaurant was still packed, and the number of Chinese diners was visibly less than half of all patrons.
"Exquisite, compact, and easy to explore," said Nora, director of a research company in Buenos Aires, when asked about the "Chinatown". She added, "I love the dim sum in 'Chinatown'; I enjoy the exotic atmosphere there. The shop owners are very friendly, and the products are diverse; you can find many things you want in one store."
Liu Jialong, a 19-year-old local of Chinese descent, told the Global Times that "Buenos Aires also has a 'Koreantown,' which is only one street and much smaller than 'Chinatown.' It used to be very popular, but its popularity has declined. In contrast, 'Chinatown' is booming now."
If China were not becoming stronger and developing so rapidly, would people be increasingly interested in China? he asked.
On the diplomatic front, the Milei administration made some comments about China that were deemed newsworthy by some Western media outlets before taking office. However, Argentines, including scholars and businesspeople, that the Global Times reporter met here during the trip place great importance on China-Argentina relations. China is Latin America's second-largest trading partner and holds the top position in several countries. In a recent survey released by the Global Times Institute (GTI), in collaboration with the Latin American Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO) and the China-Latin America Education and Culture Center, on the "China-LAC mutual perception" conducted in both regions found that the most prominent impression left by China on Latin Americans was "technology." When asked to fill in keywords that represent their primary impressions of China, a Gen Z respondent from Argentina mentioned "DeepSeek." Of all those interviewed by the Global Times, Wu Ditai, a young Argentine scholar who studied at Peking University, was the most knowledgeable about China. Watching him mimic the distinct drawl common among Beijing's taxi drivers was as impressive as it was comedic.
"It's not just 'Chinatown'; if you look deeper, Argentines are very curious about China. They want to know why China is developing so quickly and what experiences Argentina can learn from," Wu Ditai said. He has plans to return to China soon and hopes to travel across all provinces to gain a deeper understanding of the country.
Of course, the reality is that many Argentines do not have a sufficient understanding of China. Most of their information comes from the media, especially Western media sources and social media.
An Argentine journalist told the Global Times that while there is considerable coverage of China in local media, the current lack of understanding among Argentines about China is unlikely to change in the short term.
"'China Travel' is a trending topic now, and Argentina has visa-free access. The real China is right there, and everyone is welcomed to learn about it," the Global Times told Wu Ditai.
Modern mammals are known for their big brains. But new analyses of mammal skulls from creatures that lived shortly after the dinosaur mass extinction show that those brains weren’t always a foregone conclusion. For at least 10 million years after the dinosaurs disappeared, mammals got a lot brawnier but not brainier, researchers report in the April 1 Science.
That bucks conventional wisdom, to put it mildly. “I thought, it’s not possible, there must be something that I did wrong,” says Ornella Bertrand, a mammal paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh. “It really threw me off. How am I going to explain that they were not smart?”
Modern mammals have the largest brains in the animal kingdom relative to their body size. How and when that brain evolution happened is a mystery. One idea has been that the disappearance of all nonbird dinosaurs following an asteroid impact at the end of the Mesozoic Era 66 million years ago left a vacuum for mammals to fill (SN: 1/25/17). Recent discoveries of fossils dating to the Paleocene — the immediately post-extinction epoch spanning 66 million to 56 million years ago — does reveal a flourishing menagerie of weird and wonderful mammal species, many much bigger than their Mesozoic predecessors (SN: 10/24/19). It was the dawn of the Age of Mammals. Before those fossil finds, the prevailing wisdom was that in the wake of the mass dino extinction, mammals’ brains most likely grew apace with their bodies, everything increasing together like an expanding balloon, Bertrand says. But those discoveries of Paleocene fossil troves in Colorado and New Mexico, as well as reexaminations of fossils previously found in France, are now unraveling that story, by offering scientists the chance to actually measure the size of mammals’ brains over time.
Bertrand and her colleagues used CT scanning to create 3-D images of the skulls of different types of ancient mammals from both before and after the extinction event. Those specimens included mammals from 17 groups dating to the Paleocene and 17 to the Eocene, the epoch that spanned 56 million to 34 million years ago.
What the team found was a shock: Relative to their body sizes, Paleocene mammal brains were relatively smaller than those of Mesozoic mammals. It wasn’t until the Eocene that mammal brains began to grow, particularly in certain sensory regions, the team reports.
To assess how the sizes and shapes of those sensory regions also changed over time, Bertrand looked for the edges of different parts of the brains within the 3-D skull models, tracing them like a sculptor working with clay. The size of mammals’ olfactory bulbs, responsible for sense of smell, didn’t change over time, the researchers found — and that makes sense, because even Mesozoic mammals were good sniffers, she says.
The really big brain changes were to come in the neocortex, which is responsible for visual processing, memory and motor control, among other skills. But those kinds of changes are metabolically costly, Bertrand says. “To have a big brain, you need to sleep and eat, and if you don’t do that you get cranky, and your brain just doesn’t function.” So, the team proposes, as the world shook off the dust of the mass extinction, brawn was the priority for mammals, helping them swiftly spread out into newly available ecological niches. But after 10 million years or so, the metabolic calculations had changed, and competition within those niches was ramping up. As a result, mammals began to develop new sets of skills that could help them snag hard-to-reach fruit from a branch, escape a predator or catch prey.
Other factors — such as social behavior or parental care — have been important to the overall evolution of mammals’ big brains. But these new finds suggest that, at least at the dawn of the Age of Mammals, ecology — and competition between species — gave a big push to brain evolution, wrote biologist Felisa Smith of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque in a commentary in the same issue of Science. “An exciting aspect of these findings is that they raise a new question: Why did large brains evolve independently and concurrently in many mammal groups?” says evolutionary biologist David Grossnickle of the University of Washington in Seattle.
Most modern mammals have relatively large brains, so studies that examine only modern species might conclude that large brains evolved once in mammal ancestors, Grossnickle says. But what this study uncovered is a “much more interesting and nuanced story,” that these brains evolved separately in many different groups, he says. And that shows just how important fossils can be to stitching together an accurate tapestry of evolutionary history.
Researchers have finally deciphered a complete human genetic instruction book from cover to cover.
The completion of the human genome has been announced a couple of times in the past, but those were actually incomplete drafts. “We really mean it this time,” says Evan Eichler, a human geneticist and Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator at the University of Washington in Seattle.
The completed genome is presented in a series of papers published online March 31 in Science and Nature Methods.
An international team of researchers, including Eichler, used new DNA sequencing technology to untangle repetitive stretches of DNA that were redacted from an earlier version of the genome, widely used as a reference for guiding biomedical research.
Deciphering those tricky stretches adds about 200 million DNA bases, about 8 percent of the genome, to the instruction book, researchers report in Science. That’s essentially an entire chapter. And it’s a juicy one, containing the first-ever looks at the short arms of some chromosomes, long-lost genes and important parts of chromosomes called centromeres — where machinery responsible for divvying up DNA grips the chromosome.
“Some of the regions that were missing actually turn out to be the most interesting,” says Rajiv McCoy, a human geneticist at Johns Hopkins University, who was part of the team known as the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) Consortium assembling the complete genome. “It’s exciting because we get to take the first look inside these regions and see what we can find.” Telomeres are repetitive stretches of DNA found at the ends of chromosomes. Like aglets on shoelaces, they may help keep chromosomes from unraveling.
Data from the effort are already available for other researchers to explore. And some, like geneticist Ting Wang of Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, have already delved in. “Having a complete genome reference definitely improves biomedical studies.… It’s an extremely useful resource,” he says. “There’s no question that this is an important achievement.”
But, Wang says, “the human genome isn’t quite complete yet.”
To understand why and what this new volume of the human genetic encyclopedia tells us, here’s a closer look at the milestone. What did the researchers do? Eichler is careful to point out that “this is the completion of a human genome. There is no such thing as the human genome.” Any two people will have large portions of their genomes that range from very similar to virtually identical and “smaller portions that are wildly different.” A reference genome can help researchers see where people differ, which can point to genes that may be involved in diseases. Having a view of the entire genome, with no gaps or hidden DNA, may give scientists a better understanding of human health, disease and evolution.
The newly complete genome doesn’t have gaps like the previous human reference genome. But it still has limitations, Wang says. The old reference genome is a conglomerate of more than 60 people’s DNA (SN: 3/4/21). “Not a single individual, or single cell on this planet, has that genome.” That goes for the new, complete genome, too. “It’s a quote-unquote fake genome,” says Wang, who was not involved with the project.
The new genome doesn’t come from a person either. It’s the genome of a complete hydatidiform mole, a sort of tumor that arises when a sperm fertilizes an empty egg and the father’s chromosomes are duplicated. The researchers chose to decipher the complete genome from a cell line called CHM13 made from one of these unusual tumors.
That decision was made for a technical reason, says geneticist Karen Miga of the University of California, Santa Cruz. Usually, people get one set of chromosomes from their mother and another set from their father. So “we all have two genomes in every cell.”
If putting together a genome is like assembling a puzzle, “you essentially have two puzzles in the same box that look very similar to each other,” says Miga, borrowing an analogy from a colleague. Researchers would have to sort the two puzzles before piecing them together. “Genomes from hydatidiform moles don’t present that same challenge. It’s just one puzzle in the box.”
The researchers did have to add the Y chromosome from another person, because the sperm that created the hydatidiform mole carried an X chromosome.
Even putting one puzzle together is a Herculean task. But new technologies that allow researchers to put DNA bases — represented by the letters A, T, C and G — in order, can spit out stretches up to more than 100,000 bases long. Just as children’s puzzles are easier to solve because of larger and fewer pieces, these “long reads” made assembling the bits of the genome easier, especially in repetitive parts where just a few bases might distinguish one copy from another. The bigger pieces also allowed researchers to correct some mistakes in the old reference genome.
What did they find? For starters, the newly deciphered DNA contains the short arms of chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22. These “acrocentric chromosomes” don’t resemble nice, neat X’s the way the rest of the chromosomes do. Instead, they have a set of long arms and one of nubby short arms.
The length of the short arms belies their importance. These arms are home to rDNA genes, which encode rRNAs, which are key components of complex molecular machines called ribosomes. Ribosomes read genetic instructions and build all the proteins needed to make cells and bodies work. There are hundreds of copies of these rDNA regions in every person’s genome, an average of 315, but some people have more and some fewer. They’re important for making sure cells have protein-building factories at the ready.
“We didn’t know what to expect in these regions,” Miga says. “We found that every acrocentric chromosome, and every rDNA on that acrocentric chromosome, had variants, changes to the repeat unit that was private to that particular chromosome.”
By using fluorescent tags, Eichler and colleagues discovered that repetitive DNA next to the rDNA regions — and perhaps the rDNA too — sometimes switches places to land on another chromosome, the team reports in Science. “It’s like musical chairs,” he says. Why and how that happens is still a mystery.
The complete genome also contains 3,604 genes, including 140 that encode proteins, that weren’t present in the old, incomplete genome. Many of those genes are slightly different copies of previously known genes, including some that have been implicated in brain evolution and development, autism, immune responses, cancer and cardiovascular disease. Having a map of where all these genes lie may lead to a better understanding of what they do, and perhaps even of what makes humans human.
One of the biggest finds may be the structure of all of the human centromeres. Centromeres, the pinched portions which give most chromosomes their characteristic X shape, are the assembly points for kinetochores, the cellular machinery that divvies up DNA during cell division. That’s one of the most important jobs in a cell. When it goes wrong, birth defects, cancer or death can result. Researchers had already deciphered the centromeres of fruit flies and the human 8, X and Y chromosomes (SN: 5/17/19), but this is the first time that researchers got a glimpse of the rest of the human centromeres.
The structures are mostly head-to-tail repeats of about 171 base pairs of DNA known as alpha satellites. But those repeats are nestled within other repeats, creating complex patterns that distinguish each chromosome’s individual centromere, Miga and colleagues describe in Science. Knowing the structures will help researchers learn more about how chromosomes are divvied up and what sometimes throws off the process. Researchers also now have a more complete map of epigenetic marks — chemical tags on DNA or associated proteins that may change how genes are regulated. One type of epigenetic mark, known as DNA methylation, is fairly abundant across the centromeres, except for one spot in each chromosome called the centromeric dip region, Winston Timp, a biomedical engineer at Johns Hopkins University and colleagues report in Science.
Those dips are where kinetochores grab the DNA, the researchers discovered. But it’s not yet clear whether the dip in methylation causes the cellular machinery to assemble in that spot or if assembly of the machinery leads to lower levels of methylation.
Examining DNA methylation patterns in multiple people’s DNA and comparing them with the new reference revealed that the dips occur at different spots in each person’s centromeres, though the consequences of that aren’t known.
About half of genes implicated in the evolution of humans’ large, wrinkly brains are found in multiple copies in the newly uncovered repetitive parts of the genome (SN: 2/26/15). Overlaying the epigenetic maps on the reference allowed researchers to figure out which of many copies of those genes were turned on and off, says Ariel Gershman, a geneticist at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.
“That gives us a little bit more insight into which of them are actually important and playing a functional role in the development of the human brain,” Gershman says. “That was exciting for us, because there’s never been a reference that was accurate enough in these [repetitive] regions to tell which gene was which, and which ones are turned on or off.”
What is next? One criticism of genetics research is that it has relied too heavily on DNA from people of European descent. CHM13 also has European heritage. But researchers have used the new reference to discover new patterns of genetic diversity. Using DNA data collected from thousands of people of diverse backgrounds who participated in earlier research projects compared with the T2T reference, researchers more easily and accurately found places where people differ, McCoy and colleagues report in Science.
The Telomere-to-Telomere Consortium has now teamed up with Wang and his colleagues to make complete genomes of 350 people from diverse backgrounds (SN: 2/22/21). That effort, known as the pangenome project, is poised to reveal some of its first findings later this year, Wang says.
McCoy and Timp say that it may take some time, but eventually, researchers may switch from using the old reference genome to the more complete and accurate T2T reference. “It’s like upgrading to a new version of software,” Timp says. “Not everyone is going to want to do it right away.”
The completed human genome will also be useful for researchers studying other organisms, says Amanda Larracuente, an evolutionary geneticist at the University of Rochester in New York who was not involved in the project. “What I’m excited about is the techniques and tools this team has developed, and being able to apply those to study other species.”
Eichler and others already have plans to make complete genomes of chimpanzees, bonobos and other great apes to learn more about how humans evolved differently than apes did. “No one should see this as the end,” Eichler says, “but a transformation, not only for genomic research but for clinical medicine, though that will take years to achieve.”
The world already has the know-how and tools to dramatically reduce emissions from fossil fuels — but we need to use those tools immediately if we hope to forestall the worst impacts of climate change. That’s the message of the third and final installment of the massive sixth assessment of climate science by the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was released April 4.
“We know what to do, we know how to do it, and now it’s up to us to take action,” said sustainable energy researcher Jim Skea of Imperial College London, who cochaired the report, at a news event announcing its release. Earth is on track to warm by an average of about 3.2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels by the end of the century (SN: 11/26/19). Altering that course and limiting warming to 1.5 degrees or even 2 degrees means that global fossil fuel emissions will need to peak no later than the year 2025, the new report states.
Right now, meeting that goal looks extremely unlikely. National pledges to reduce fossil fuel emissions to date amount to “a litany of broken climate promises,” said United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres at the event.
The previous two installments of the IPCC’s sixth assessment described how climate change is already fueling extreme weather events around the globe — and noted that adaptation alone will not be enough to shield people from those hazards (SN: 8/9/21; SN: 2/28/22).
The looming climate crisis “is horrifying, and I don’t want to sugarcoat that,” says Bronson Griscom, a forest ecologist and the director of Natural Climate Solutions at the environmental organization Conservation International, based in Arlington, Va.
But Griscom, who was not an author on the new IPCC report, says its findings also give him hope. It’s “what I would call a double-or-nothing bet that we’re confronted with right now,” he says. “There [are] multiple ways that this report is basically saying, ‘Look, if we don’t do anything, it’s increasingly grim.’ But the reasons to do something are incredibly powerful and the tools in the toolbox are very powerful.”
Tools in the toolbox Those tools are strategies that governments, industries and individuals can use to cut emissions immediately in multiple sectors of the global economy, including transportation, energy, building, agriculture and forestry, and urban development. Taking immediate advantage of opportunities to reduce emissions in each of those sectors would halve global emissions by 2030, the report states.
Consider the transportation sector, which contributed 15 percent of human-related greenhouse gas emissions in 2019. Globally, electric vehicle sales have surged in the last few years, driven largely by government policies and tougher emissions laws for the auto industry (SN: 12/22/21).
If that surge continues, “electric vehicles offer us the greatest potential [to reduce transportation emissions on land], as long as they’re combined with low or zero carbon electricity sources,” Diana Ürge-Vorsatz, the vice chair of the IPCC’s Working Group III, said at the news event. But for aviation and long-haul shipping, which are more difficult to electrify, reduced carbon emissions could be achieved with low-carbon hydrogen fuels or biofuels, though these alternatives require further research and development.
Then there are urban areas, which are contributing a growing proportion of global greenhouse gas emissions, from 62 percent in 2015 to between 67 and 72 percent in 2020, the report notes. In established cities, buildings can be retrofitted, renovated or repurposed to make city layouts more walkable and provide more accessible public transportation options.
And growing cities can incorporate energy-efficient infrastructure and construct buildings using zero-emissions materials. Additionally, urban planners can take advantage of green roofs, urban forests, rivers and lakes to help capture and store carbon, as well as provide other climate benefits such as cleaner air and local cooling to counter urban heat waves (SN: 4/3/18).
Meanwhile, “reducing emissions in industry will involve using materials and energy more efficiently, reusing and recycling products and minimizing waste,” Ürge-Vorsatz said.
As for agriculture and forestry, these and other land-use industries contribute about 22 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, with half of those emissions coming from deforestation (SN: 7/13/21). So reforestation and reduced deforestation are key to flipping the balance between CO₂ emissions and removal from the atmosphere (SN: 7/9/21; SN: 1/3/22). But there are a lot of other strategies that the world can employ at the same time, the report emphasizes. Better management of forests, coastal wetlands, grasslands and other ecosystems, more sustainable crop and livestock management, soil carbon management in agriculture and agroforestry can all bring down emissions (SN: 7/14/21).
The report also includes, for the first time in the IPCC’s reports, a chapter on the “untapped potential” of lifestyle changes to reduce emissions. Such changes include opting for walking or cycling or using public transportation rather than driving, shifting toward plant-based diets and reducing air travel (SN: 5/14/20).
Those lifestyle changes could reduce emissions by 40 to 70 percent by 2050, the report suggests. To enable those changes, however, government policies, infrastructure and technology would need to be in place.
Government policies are also key to financing these transformational changes. Globally, the investment in climate-related technologies needs to ramp up, and quickly, to limit warming below 2 degrees C, the report states. Right now, investments are three to six times lower than they need to be by 2030. And a combination of public and private investments will be essential to aiding the transition away from fossil fuels and toward renewable energy in developing nations (SN: 1/25/21).
Future strategies Still, reducing emissions alone won’t be enough: We will need to actively remove carbon from the atmosphere to achieve net zero emissions and keep the planet well below 2 degrees C of warming, the report notes. “One thing that’s clear in this report, as opposed to previous reports, is that carbon removal is going to be necessary in the near term,” says Simon Nicholson, director of the Institute for Carbon Removal Law and Policy at American University in Washington, D.C., who was not involved in the report.
Such strategies include existing approaches such as protecting or restoring carbon dioxide–absorbing forests, but also technologies that are not yet widely available commercially, such as directly capturing carbon dioxide from the air, or converting the gas to a mineral form and storing it underground (SN: 12/17/18).
These options are still in their infancy, and we don’t know how much of an impact they’ll have yet, Nicholson says. “We need massive investment now in research.”
An emphasis on acting “now,” on eliminating further delay, on the urgency of the moment has been a recurring theme through all three sections of the IPCC’s sixth assessment report released over the last year. What impact these scientists’ stark statements will have is unclear.
But “the jury has reached a verdict, and it is damning,” U.N. Secretary-General Guterres said. “If you care about justice and our children’s future, I am appealing directly to you.”
